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Sweden Photovoltaic technology status and prospects Maria Hall, Swedish Energy Agency Monika Adsten, Elforsk AB |
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The Swedish electricity supply system is largely based on nuclear power (about
50 % of the electricity supply) and hydropower (40 %). Although growing rapidly,
mainly due to the introduction of a national renewable electricity certificate
system in 2003 (see below), wind power and biomass-fuelled CHP still provides
a minor contribution to the national electricity supply. Less than 0,1 % of the
electricity supply comes from PV and the market growth for PV continues to be
fairly slow (6-7 % per year). Although the number of grid-connected PV systems
has increased during the last few years, the bulk of the Swedish PV plants are
small domestic off-grid systems.
Until now, there have been no general subsidies aimed directly at promoting PV in Sweden. Beginning in 2005, there will, however, be a subsidy for PV on public buildings (see the section about Implementation and Market Development below).
The Swedish policies, which could indirectly promote the use of PV power systems, are taxes and fees related to conventional electricity production and a market based renewable energy certificate scheme, which was launched in May 2003.
The certificate scheme promotes electricity generated from renewable energy sources like biomass, small-scale hydro, wind and PV without any distinction between technologies. For every MWh of renewable electricity that an electricity company produces it receives one certificate. The electricity consumers are then required to buy certificates in proportion to the amount of electricity they consume. In 2004, the consumers were required to buy certificates corresponding to 8,1 % of their consumption, which resulted in a market price of about 25 EUR per MWh.
The current level of energy taxes and the value of the renewable energy certificates are too low to have any impact on the PV market in Sweden at today's PV system prices. Furthermore, Sweden's strong industrial demand for low energy prices in combination with the lack of subsidies for PV projects leads to little interest in PV among private investors and thus presents high barriers for market expansion and consequent cost reduction.
However, since PV is recognized as a sustainable energy technology, the attitude among the public is positive and has been expressed in form of increased consumer demand for renewable electricity and PV power. The strong international progress in the field, not least in terms of rapidly growing industries and employment opportunities, is slowly becoming more recognized in Sweden.
The Swedish Energy Agency (www.stem.se) is the national authority responsible for issues regarding the supply and use of energy. Its main task is to implement the Swedish energy policy programme, which is decided by the Swedish Parliament. The aim of the programme is to establish an ecologically and economically sustainable energy system and to secure the energy supply. The main emphasis is on the promotion of the use of renewable energy such as biomass, hydropower, wind power and PV.
The Swedish Energy Agency provides funding for PV research,
cost-shared technological development and, in some cases,
demonstration projects. A new but important task for the agency
is to facilitate the commercialisation of the results of government funded energy-related R&D.
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Sweden is participating in the EU network of national programme
managers, PV-ERA-NET, which is a four-year project that started
in October 2004. The project aims at increased collaboration and
coherence between the national PV R&D programmes in the
European Research Area.
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The research at Ångström Solar Center has dual goals: to contribute to a sustainable energy system in the future and to increase the economic competitiveness of Sweden in the field of energy technology. The approach is to depart from leading scientific platforms and evolve progressively, via scale-up and prototype manufacturing, towards commercialization in three project areas: CIGS cells, Grätzel cells and electrochromic windows.
The thin film CIGS solar cell technology is the project area which is closest to industrial realisation and a spin-off company, Solibro AB, has been started (see Industry Status below). The focus has been on CIGS film fabrication by co-evaporation. The aim is to achieve high performance and cost reduction at the same time as processes and materials that minimize the impact on the environment are utilized.
Among the results, a world record in efficiency for a thin film solar cell module of 16,6 % can be noted. For the development of the next generation CIGS technology, elimination of cadmium in the buffer layer and minimization of the indium content of the cells are main objectives.
The research on Grätzel cells aims at developing nanostructured dye-sensitized electrochemical cells which can be manufactured at very low cost using a continuous process. Efficiencies are still low compared with cells of conventional crystalline silicon or CIGS and the competitiveness for this technology is currently in the area of niche products. Basic research is aimed at finding new combinations of dyes and electrolytes which can increase the cell efficiency.
The joint programme at Ångström Solar Center, which has received a total funding of about 16 MEUR, ends in March 2005. However, the research on CIGS and Grätzel cells will receive continued funding from the Swedish Energy Agency throughout 2005.
The SolEl programme is a national R&D programme with focus on PV systems and their applications. The programme is financed by the Swedish Energy Agency, Swedish utility companies, manufacturing companies (PV and other), construction companies and property managers. The present programme period runs throughout 2005. The main objectives of the SolEl programme are to perform technological development, information dissemination and objective analysis (both technical and non-technical) of applications and costs of PV systems. The programme closely follows the rapid international development for PV in general and grid-connected BIPV in particular. It also provides a basis for international exchange, such as Sweden's participation in IEA PVPS.
In addition, the programme performs studies of the feasibility, procurement, installation and operation of Swedish PV installations and it has implemented a web based monitoring system for grid-connected PV installations in Sweden (www.elforsk.se/solenergi). Development of concentrating PV systems and PV-thermal concepts are also included the programme.
The interest from the Swedish construction industry in the SolElprogramme has increased due to the strong international development in the field of BIPV. The involvement of the building industry and property managers in the programme during the last few years has shifted the focus of the programme somewhat, from stand-alone systems towards PV in buildings. Recent programme activities include the development of a tool (www.solcell.nu) for carrying out PV projects in the built environment in the form of a web based information platform for architects, constructors and other actors which serves as a guide through the process. The SolEl programme is managed by Elforsk AB, which is the Swedish electricity utilities' R&D company (www.elforsk.se). The overall objective of Elforsk is the rationalisation of joint industry R&D of importance to the generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of electricity.
In connection to the SolEl programme, a programme for BIPV research has been funded by the Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning (Formas). The programme budget has been about 110 000 Euro per year. In addition, research and development in the area of PV systems in the built environment has been funded by approximately 110 KEUR per year through Formas' annual open call, “Energy in the Built Environment.”
Hammarby Sjöstad in Stockholm is a new residential area with a strong environmental profile and in which several construction companies have chosen to demonstrate PV as a means to fulfil ambitious goals for reduced environmental impact. The PV installations in Hammarby Sjöstad are among the first true BIPV projects in Sweden and PV modules have been used as integrated parts of buildings through integration in windows, façades and balconies. Most of the BIPV projects in Hammarby Sjöstad have reached their completion. The two 5,7 kW BIPV projects realised by the company JM have been in operation since 2002. The 17,6 kW installation on the Holmen building was commissioned in September 2003 and the 22 kW project Lysande was connected to the grid during spring 2004.
Four Swedish actors (a real-estate owner, a real-estate management
company, a centre of excellence in building related research and
an architects company) have participated in the EU project PV-NORD
(www.pvnord.org), which ended in the end of 2004. The project has demonstrated northern BIPV through eight highly visible and prestigious construction projects in Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Norway and the Netherlands.
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The market for PV in Sweden is dominated by domestic stand-alone PV systems. The
majority of these systems are small and predominantly used to supply electricity
to recreational homes where there is no grid available. Apart from the off-grid
domestic market, there are some off-grid non-domestic systems, supplying electricity
for telecommunication systems, lighthouses, etc., and a few grid-connected systems.
The grid-connected systems are mostly demonstration projects intended to demonstrate
the PV technology in general or to conduct research. Some installations have also
been made in public buildings, with the objective to increase the awareness of
renewable energy solutions.
The lack of general incentives or subsidies for PV has resulted in a comparatively slow development of the PV market in Sweden. The total cumulative PV power installed in Sweden by the end of 2003 was 3,6 MW. The market size has been rather constant over the last ten years with a slight upturn (about 6 % per year) in the last three years. The power installed during 2003 was 284 kW, which corresponds to a market growth of about 7 % compared to 2002.
In June 2004, the Swedish Energy Agency reported an investigation
to the Ministry of Industry, Employment and Communication on the
status of PV applications, the industrial activities in Sweden and
possible promotion schemes for PV. The report has formed a basis for a parliament decision on an incentive for energy efficiency refurbishing of public buildings. The incentive gives a 30 % investment subsidy for investments in energy-efficiency and installation of renewable energy technologies in public buildings. However, for solar cells, the subsidy will be 70 %. The scheme will be executed as soon as it has been approved by the European Commission and will run until 31 December 2007. There is an upper limit to the subsidies of 11 MEUR, which corresponds to 2-3 MW of new capacity. This is almost as much as the installed capacity (about 3,6 MW) in Sweden today.
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During 2004, the production amounted to 4 MW of modules. The company is planning to triple the production during 2005. The amount of installed PV capacity per annum in Sweden is considerably lower than the amount of produced modules. Hence, a large part of the modules are exported. The part of the production that is exported varies from manufacturer to manufacturer, but is generally more than 95 %.
An additional industrial initiative in Sweden is the company Solibro AB in Uppsala. The company, which is a spin-off from the Ångström Solar Center, is currently up-scaling the processes for making thin film CIGS. When scale-up of the CIGS fabrication process has been successfully demonstrated, a complete line for fabrication of modules will be installed. The aim is to have modules on the market in 2008. Solibro AB is financed by three large corporations and two investment funds. The Swedish Energy Agency co-finances the technology development in the company.
There are also a small but increasing number of SMEs which designs, markets and sells PV products and systems.
There are currently no feed-stock or cell manufacturers in Sweden
or any manufacturers that produce PV specific balance of systems
components, such as inverters, storage batteries, supporting
structures or DC switch-gear.
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Another government funded project which will start during 2005 is the demonstration of building-integration and grid-connection of 6 kW rooftop PV systems in about ten new single-family houses in the Mälardalen region in Sweden. One of the goals of this project is to show that PV can supply a major part of the household electricity on an annual basis.
During 2005, the Swedish Energy Agency will assess the current
status of Swedish and international PV R&D in order to layout
a roadmap for future Swedish research activities in the field. This, together with experiences from the new investment subsidy for
PV on public buildings, will form the basis for future PV initiatives in Sweden.
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